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The Development of Kung Fu

Chinese Kung Fu as we know it today is made up of a collection of hundreds of different fighting styles that developed over centuries of Chinese history from these early, rudimentary beginnings.   

According to Chinese tradition, the Yellow Emperor was a famous General who introduced the earliest forms of martial arts to China during his reign between 2698–2598 BC.  Although often called Huangdi, the Records of the Grand Historian, compiled by Sima Qian in the first century BC, gives the Yellow Emperor’s name as “Xuan Yuan” (軒轅). 

The Records of the Grand Historian reveal that this period was marked by constant tribal wars and relentless plundering which rendered life in the valley of the Yellow River more than difficult.  Huangdi, at the helm of Yanhouang tribe, defeated his opponents in a series of epic battles and went on to unify Yellow River tribes into first Chinese state.

Beyond the successes in these battles, Huangdi is recorded as having authored extensive writings on a range of subjects, such as martial arts, military training as well as astrology and medicine.  The Yellow Emperor’s Internal Canon, which covers topics relating to health and anatomy, is attributed to Huangdi himself.  It is considered to be one of the oldest pieces in the world which laid the foundations of Chinese medicine, by intertwining medicine with a distinct philosophy of life. From the inception of the first Chinese state onwards, the development of Chinese martial arts has been deeply enmeshed with parallel developments in military theory and practice, as well as developments in medicine which generated new understandings of the workings of the human body.  This later found its best expression in Laozi’s Tao te Ching, which in its own right, paved a way for the emergence of Kung Fu, not only as a martial art, but a lifestyle for millions of people.

The Yellow Emperor became a powerful, enduring national symbol.  This reached a zenith during the last decade of the Qing dynasty and remained dominant in Chinese nationalist discourse into the Twentieth century.    The legend of Huangdi left an enduring legacy of higher learning within Chinese Kung Fu that can be traced across the Dynasties that followed. 

Kung Fu in the Shang and Zhou Dynasties

The Shang Dynasty  商朝 (1766-1046 BC) is the earliest ruling dynasty of China to be established in recorded history, though other dynasties predated it.  During this period hunting was regarded as an important measure of Kung Fu training, and this lead to Shǒubó Kung Fu (手搏).  From these first descriptions of what was then called “Chinese Boxing” this was a form of organized hand-to-hand combat practice that included strikes with hands and feet as well as throwing techniques.  Manuals describing these techniques were recorded at the time.

It was during this time when the practice of combat skills using various weapons became part of military training.  During the Shang and  Zhou (周)Dynasty (1046 until 221 BC) martial arts evolved to be a kind of dancing used to train soldiers and inspire their morale.  Later in the Zhou Dynasty martial-arts dancing was designated as a component of education.

The late Zhou period was marked by unprecedentedly violent political, social, and economic upheaval.   Social turmoil during this time caused traditional values to be questioned.  In addressing fundamental problems about the nature of man and society the late Zhou thinkers laid the foundations of Chinese moral and political philosophy in the form of Confucianism and Taoism.

The Taoist response to this crisis was metaphysical – seeking enlightening by embracing the essence of Tao and recognising the underlying permanence of things beyond these transitory states.  It pressed for the complete abandonment of the idea of social order and return to a primitive state of nature. The Confucian response was to press for the Way of the sage kings – an ideal and unchanging political order.

Kung Fu in the Qin and Han Dynasties

The Qin (221 BC – 207 BC) Dynasty saw a reunification of China.  In order to consolidate the power of the centralised government and prevent any further rebellion, Emperor Qin Shi Huang banned private ownership of weapons which changed the direction of development of martial arts.

Wrestling, swordplay, and martial arts dancing became very popular forms of entertainment.  A combat wrestling system called Juélì (角力) or Jiǎolì (角力) which included striking, throwing, joint manipulation and pressure point attack techniques, is mentioned in the Classic of Rites 禮記.  The original text is believed to have been compiled by Confucius himself, whilst the edition usually referred to today was re-worked by various scholars during the Han Dynasty.

It was Emperor Qin Shi Huang (259-210BC) who is accredited the early development of Fung Fu through the integration of these early fighting skills into the training of his soldiers.   This official military fighting style was called Guanzong Boxing, which was later referred to as Hong Fist.   The earliest references to Chinese martial arts, however, appear in the Spring and Autumn Annals ( 吴越春秋) which is an unofficial history from the time of the Eastern Han dynasty.   The ten-volume book was written by Zhao Ye (赵晔) and narrates the history of battles between the Wu and Yue states during the Spring and Autumn period.  A combat theory, including the integration of notions of “hard” and “soft” techniques, is expounded in the story of the “Maiden of Yue”.

The Han History Bibliographies (206 BCE – 8 CE) records a distinction between this sport-based wrestling and the earlier Shoubo hand-to-hand combat fighting system.  Various forms of Han period wrestling are documented in Sima Qian’s book, Records of the Grand Historian, written in BCE ca.100.

The later period of the Han Dynasty brought forth another significant development, that came to influence martial arts to a great extent. Hua Tuo, a well-known physician combined a set of exercises based on the observed movements of five animals (the tiger, the bear, the dear, the crane and the monkey) and introduced these into the Qigong curriculum that existed at the time, which sought to facilitate the flow of Qi around the body, enhance blood circulation, fitness, and alleviate the physical burdens of old age.   Even today, this “Exercise of Five Animals” still plays a prominent role in the Southern and Shaolin Kung Fu styles.

Buddhism was imported during the Han Dynasty.  This, alongside Taoism and Confucianism formed the ‘Three Doctrines’  – the main branches of Chinese religious and political thinking.  As philosophies and religions, they not only influenced spirituality, but also government, science, the arts, and social structure.  Understanding the unique interplay between these three traditions is key to understanding Chinese society both in ancient times, as well as modern times.

Economic development and political expansion during this period had fostered widespread external trade.  Merchants from the predominantly Buddhist areas of central Asia began living in the Chinese Capital and other cities.  With it came the gradual spread of the Buddhist faith from these foreign communities. The adoption of Buddhism occurred in response to increasing social and political disintegration which had left a vacuum for new beliefs to provide consolation during these times of suffering.  Despite the seemingly marked difference between the Indian and Chinese cultures, Buddhism was interpreted as an offshoot of Taoism and therefore embraced. 

The end of the Han Dynasty marked a period where China was divided for nearly four centuries.

Kung Fu in the Tang Dynasty

Martials arts reached their prime during the Tang Dynasty 唐朝  (618-907 AD) when Empress Wu Zetian introduced military reforms and adopted the imperial martial arts examination system giving rise to the increasing numbers of people actively seeking to develop martial art skills.  Through these Kung Fu examination candidates who were highly skilled would receive titles and awards. 

This practice greatly propelled the development of martial arts encouraging more middle- and lower-class people to practise martial arts.  It also led to the prevalence of militarism and created a culture of gallantry where martial skill was revered.  The sword became a symbol of strength, courage, masculinity, and righteousness, and carrying short weapons like knives, daggers and swords became fashionable.   Increases in social and economic prosperity boosted the development of martial arts performances. Martial dances and Jiaodi contests were frequently held during courtly banquets, festivals, and celebrations.  Martial arts had now evolved to be an artistic form and a genre separate from its historic association with sports and military combat.  According to historical records, the history of the renowned

Shaolin martial arts can be traced back to this period.  Chinese Kung Fu had now become an independent form of spiritual and bodily practice, which uniquely blended medicine, religion, philosophy, and sport.  

Alongside the practise itself, new perspectives were allowed to be developed in each of these fields extending these.   During the Tang period, as Buddhism and Taoism was also flourishing, Shaolin Kung Fu reached new peaks, as Tang emperors, who held Shaolin in great esteem gave a royal patronage to the monastery.  

The first half of the Tang Dynasty saw large areas of central Asian regained that had been lost during Han times.   It was a cosmopolitan period resulting from a flourishing overland trade.  This enabled Kung Fu, along with other elements of Chinese culture to expand across East Asia.  The Buddhist religion, which had first appeared during the Han Dynasty, swept across the entirety of China. 

This initial expansiveness shifted to xenophobia in the second half of the Dynasty.   A severe persecution in 845 occurred after Emperor Wuzong enacted policies to suppress Buddhism.  This saw the closure of 4,600 Buddhist monasteries along with 40,000 temples and shrines, forcing 260,000 Buddhist monks and nuns to return to secular life.  Although the ban would be lifted just a few years after, Buddhism never regained its once dominant status in Chinese culture.

Kung Fu in the Song and Yuan Dynasties

The Song 宋朝 (960 – 1279) and Yuan (1279 – 1368) Dynasties witnessed the climax of Kung Fu development.  Practice of Kung Fu returned as standard in the military and popularity increased within civil organizations. 

The Song rulers imposed civilian control over the military and introduced a voluntary recruitment system to build up a professional standing army.  This saw a return to the development of weapon skills and training methods again for soldiers.  An increasing number of military texts were produced by the Song government. At the request of Yue Fei and other Generals, a large number of soldiers and common people tended to practice Kung Fu. 

Yue Fei, a military commander of the Song Dynasty, was among the first generals who requested that his soldiers to be trained in Kung Fu practice. As a result of this, an exponential number of civil schools and organizations teaching Kung Fu open their doors, which enabled southern Kung Fu styles to proliferate greatly during the Song Dynasty.

This was further aided by the rise of urban centres and the continued booming entertainment industry which greatly expanded the reach of martial arts performance. Martial arts demonstrations on the streets became a profession and martial arts emerged as a popular hobby among the urban population.

Southern Fist (Nanquan) 南拳 became a popular style during this time with Hangzhou as the epicentre of practice.  It is so named because it originated in the southern China, especially in Guangdong and Fujian Provinces.  The Southern Fist distinctive styles are reflected in the stabilisation of the feet and fists. It emphasized the nimble motions of the upper limbs with a focus on the movement of elbows and knees rather than kicks and jumps. Its distinctive styles are reflected in the stabilization of feet and fists and in the strength of motions.

Southern Fist as a type of traditional Chinese Kung Fu would extend over the next 400 years.  There are many styles including Wing Chun, Hung Ga Kuen, Cai Li Fo (Choy Li Fut) of Guangdong, Crane Boxing, Arhats Kung Fu of Fujian, Zhou Style Boxing of Guangxi and others.   The Song dynasty marks a transition to a modern form of martial arts that we are familiar with today – a collection of weapon skills, combat techniques, wrestling, martial dances, and performances – had taken shape. It was practised for various purposes, including military training, health promotion, self-defence, entertainment, and sport-like competition.

From within all these expressions of martial arts, Chinese martial arts entered a mature stage of development during this period.  Practicing martial arts for the purpose of developing physical prowess became important.  She, a type of martial arts club, also found its way into the life of the ordinary people.  It was in these clubs that people came together to study martial arts.  

In 1234 Mongol invaders under the command of Genghis Khan wiped out China and ended the Song Dynasty.  This was the first time that the entirety of China had come under foreign domination.    The Mongol elites did not seek to radically alter the Chinese traditions, but they actively retained their own culture choosing not to incorporate this with the Chinese. This sharp segregation was reflected in the martial skills of the northern Mongol invaders and the ethnically Han Chinese citizens who were considered of lower order who were expressly forbidden from owning weapons or practicing the martial arts.

The Mongols only fought on horseback, they had no other military function or skillset. However, the Yuan dynasty was dependent on other groups in society to backfill basic military skills and manpower.   Infantry, combat engineers, and naval forces all had to be recruited from the local Han population. The new government did not establish a system for training people in these lesser skills, instead recruiting sailors, fighters and builders who already possessed the requisite skills into the military.

The practice of recruiting skilled fighters undermined the government’s incentive to pacify and disarm the civilian population.  As to do so would undermine their own military strength and future ability to raise an army.  As such, although Han people were forbidden to practice Kung Fu in groups, they were able to continue to practice and accounts reveal independent martial arts teachers traveling the countryside teaching wrestling, pole and spear fighting techniques.  It is understood that Jueyuan, the Abbot of Shaolin Temple at that time, created the Seventy-two Fists technique (Huaquan).   

Huaquan is characterized as a traditional Northern ‘long arm’ style, but it includes lots of mid- and close-range techniques with smooth, well-connected movements.  These are executed in fast bursts from structural strong ‘rooted’ stances.  Practitioners breathe deeply to spread air flows throughout the body to develop external and internal strength and energy for fighting – in particular Cun Jing (Inch Energy).   These energies are used to develop and internalise the essence of the movement creating power, technique, and form. 

As was typical at the time, the energies of the Hua Quan were characterised around five animal forms: the Ape, Tiger, Dragon, Leopard, and Eagle.  The traditional Shaolin “Five animals” at the time being the Tiger, the Crane, the Leopard, the Snake, and the Dragon.  Later, Jueyuan learned Li Family Fist, Baimo Fist and Choy Li Fut to further improve all the skills into One-hundred and Seventy-two Fists, including Five-Element Boxing and Eight-Diagram Boxing.

It seems certain things were much more troubling to Mongol elites than others.  Revolutionary political organizations were their main concern.  The Mongols also apparently were more concerned with the ownership of bows, which they viewed as a real weapon, rather than spears or poles which were the dominant infantry arms of the south but viewed as crude implements.   Wrestling and boxing skills were also considered as having no practical military application and also did not attract oversight or suppression.  As such, whilst some martial arts such as civilian archery actually were suppressed under Mongol rule, others (such as pole fighting and wrestling) were ignored.

The Yuan dynasty dissolved due to a mixture of political infighting among elites and an inability to deal with the eruption of popular rebellions around the countryside.  These came from both challenges to government by local influential figures along with religious uprisings inspired from Buddhist cults which had become popular throughout the country.

Kung Fu in Ming and Qing Dynasties

Chinese Kung Fu achieved larger development in Ming (1368 – 1644) and Qing (1644 – 1911) Dynasties.  This period is often seen as apex of the Kung Fu culture with Shaolin Kung Fu reaching a new zenith, many new styles appeared and numerous books on martial arts were published. 

Although the Mongols had been toppled, they continued to be a threat and large armies had to be maintained along the Great Wall.  Facilitated by warfare and benefiting from the introduction of a voluntary recruitment military system, martial arts reached a new level of development.  This period saw the first compiled catalogue of Kung Fu styles by General Qi Jiguang, a military commander.  It was during this period that Kung Fu fighting styles were systematized for the first time.  An increasing number of military texts and manuals were composed by military commanders and experts to standardise martial arts techniques and training. Soldiers were required to learn simple and effective fighting skills and avoid ‘colourful’ martial arts techniques meant for performance.

In addition to these military texts, descriptions of martial arts are evidenced in other literary genres such as poems, essays, local newspapers, and historical writings.  These reveal that various schools of martial arts had taken shape by the late Ming era and were practised by civilians for the purpose of self-defence or as a hobby.

During this period Long Fist (Changquan), Hong Fist and Kicking Legs appeared.  The combination of the northern and southern styles composed the Shaolin School Boxing.  Qi Jiguang, a famous patriotic general in the Ming Dynasty, compiled all the skills throughout China at that time, including Long Fist, Short Hands, Hong Fist, Bazi Fist and other skills and people called them Southern Shaolin Boxing.  Later, Long Fist, Short Hands, Five Fist and Hua Fist of Shandong Province, Five Shapes Boxing and Crane Boxing of Fujian Province as well as the Hung Kuen, Wing Chun and Choy Li Fut of Guangxi and Guangdong provinces became the mainstream during that time.

The Ming founder had ruled by terror and popular unrest marked the last decades of this Dynasty.  Chinese martial arts continued to flourish in the early Qing period.  The Imperial Military Examinations and the relaxed control over weapons facilitated the development of martial arts.  People now began to categorise different schools of martial arts into two families: external (Waijia) and internal (Neijia). 

The external family was headed by the Shaolin school. The defining characteristics of this approach focused on punching and kicking which included aggressive attacking techniques, fast movements, and powerful strikes. Training focused on increasing physical strength, speed, and agility emphasising the confrontation of force with force during combat. The internal family was headed by the Wudang school, believed to have been founded by Daoist priest Zhang Sanfeng from the Wudang Mountains in Hubei Province.  It emphasised the practise of internal power – cultivating Qi to energise the physical body and use physical power effectively and efficiently. With a focus on throw and joint lock techniques, the movements were mostly soft, gentle, and relaxed.  During combat, the practitioner avoided direct clashes with the opponent, evading or redirecting the opponent’s attack and ‘borrow’ their force to launch an attack.

The Qing period, the last imperial dynasty, resulted from the Manchus capturing Peking in 1644.  Unlike the Mongols, the Manchus had modelled their own state on Chinese patterns and did not interfere with the Chinese political system.  However, they did resist integration, forbidding intermarriage and refusing Chinese settlers in their homeland. Additionally, the Yongzheng Emperor (1678–1735) banned the teaching, studying, and performing of martial arts in public places in 1727.

The rapid development of martial arts had attracted the attention of the Qing court.  It was concerned that the growing population of martial arts practitioners could lead to a rise in gang culture, violence and crime.  Together with the introduction of modern firearms, it discouraged the development of combat techniques and weapon skills resulting in many martial art practitioners  turning their focus to hand-to-hand combat forms and Qigong exercises that promoted good health.

During this time different martial arts genres began to be integrated – the addition of wrestling techniques into martial arts facilitated the improvement and maturity of martial arts.  This period marked a new era breaking down historic distinctions between martial art genres focused on performance and those for actual combat.

Bajiquan (八极拳 ) emerged in the 18th century and was originally called Baziquan, or “rake fist,” because of its trademark use of swift downward strikes using partially opened fists.   It features rapid, explosive movements including elbow, shoulder and fist strikes and is considered ideal for short-range combat.   The techniques are intended on forcing an opponent’s arms apart to expose the body and allow a strike.

By the 1880s, martial arts had become a popular form of physical exercise practised by farmers in northern China. A large number of farmers began to use these martial arts skills to defend their villages against bandits.  Various schools of martial arts, including Meihuaquan (Plum Blossom Fist), Hongquan (Red Fist), Baguaquan, Erlangquan, Dadaohui (Big Sabre Society) and Shaolin kung fu circulated in rural areas in Shandong, Hebei, and Henan provinces.

Dong Haichuan is credited with founding the internal Baguazhang (八卦掌 ) style in the first half of the 19th century by synthesizing martial arts techniques he learned from Taoist and Buddhist practitioners that he met during his travels in rural China. The most distinctive feature of the Baguazhang style is its use of circle walking whist performing a diverse range of strikes, throws, kicks, and grappling moves.  Baguazhang uses a diverse array of weapons including distinctive large broadswords.

The nineteenth century saw China enter a period of political unrest and economic hardship caused by domestic rebellions and Western incursion. In the late 1880s and 1890s, triggered by the expansion of Christian churches, farmers in Shandong Province, banded together through martial arts societies launching anti-foreign campaigns attacking churches, foreign missionaries, and their Chinese converts. The movement later developed into the Boxer Rebellion of 1898–1901 from which emerged a nationalism with a consciousness of sovereignty becoming a new intellectual source for resisting imperialist expansions.  An anti-Manchu movement organised by Han nationalists plotted to overthrow the Qing government and establish a modern nation state.  Martial arts became associated with politics and many sport clubs, gymnastics schools and martial arts societies functioned as footholds for nationalists.  These were used to facilitate the communication, assembly and training of anti-Manchu revolutionary forces and directly contributed to the success of the 1911 Revolution.

Kung Fu in the 20^th Century

For centuries after being re-established in the military during the Ming period, martial arts training was a mandatory procedure for professional soldiers skilled in hand-to-hand combat.  During the last few decades of the 19th century all members of the Chinese military trained in the traditional arts.  Martial arts training was sought after by civilians at this time precisely because it could lead to a career in the military.  However, with the advent of modern weapons in the earlier 20th century traditional training quickly became redundant. This transition posed an existential crisis for the Chinese martial arts community.  The military had been the single largest employer of martial artists. 

To compound the problem, the nation’s public transportation pathways were modernizing at the same time as the military.  Increasing numbers of trains and steamships meant the Chinese martial artists hired as armed escorts to accompany goods on dangerous cross-country journeys also quickly became obsolete.  It was only as a result of Japan’s successful industrialization and growth as a regional power that the strength of the Chinese, now portrayed as the ‘sick man of the West’, was thrown into question.   The traditional Japanese arts were seen to underpin the strength of the Japanese people.  In an attempt to counter this, Chinese martial arts were resurrected in the Chinese military not only to increase the fighting skills and physical stamina of the troops, but the  psychological courage of the troops as well.

Fuelled by a modern Chinese nationalism that focused on anti-imperialism, national unity, and national revival, practising Chinese martial arts became widely recognised as a basic approach to build up people’s physiques, strengthen the nation and achieve national salvation.  Additional educational reforms in the late 1910s and early 1920s led to a renewed focus on physical training within Chinese society with this reformation being led by modernized martial arts.  A social momentum gave rise to a growth of fighting arts at both the regional and national level. 

In this context, the government officially promoted Chinese martial arts in the education sector. The 1910s, 1920s and 1930s became the golden age of Chinese martial arts, now called Guoshu or Wushu.  Wing Chun became a fixture in the local martial arts landscape during this post 1911 revolution period.  This had seen waves of nationalist sentiment unleashed which also helped to popularize practices like traditional boxing and wrestling.  Wing Chun rode this wave establishing itself in the Pearl River Delta region during the 1920s and 1930s.

Guoshu societies were set up in major cities across the country.  Guoshu manuals, textbooks and monographs were published in great numbers to meet the increasing demand from martial arts enthusiasts and practitioners.  Supported by the government, educationalists, and the general public, Guoshu served the goals of promoting individual fitness and aiding national defence, and it contributed to the construction of national identity and national spirit among the Chinese people.    

Copyright @ Craig Sands